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Facilities and services such as housing, healthcare, education,
employment, and transportation have been systematically separated in the
United States on racial categorizations. Segregation was the legally or socially enforced separation of African Americans from whites, as well as
the separation of other ethnic minorities from majority and mainstream communities.[1] While mainly referring to the physical separation and
provision of separate facilities, it can also refer to other
manifestations such as prohibitions against interracial marriage (enforced
with anti-miscegenation laws), and the separation of roles within an institution. The United States Armed Forces up until 1948, black units
were typically separated from white units but were still led by white officers.[2] A sign reading "We Cater to White Trade Only"
"We Cater to White Trade Only" sign on a restaurant window in Lancaster,
Ohio in 1938. Ohio, like most of the North and West did not have de jure statutory enforced segregation (Jim Crow laws), but many places still had
de facto social segregation in the early 20th century. Together with state sponsored segregation, such private owner enforced segregation was
outlawed for public accommodations in the 1960s.[3] Part of a series of articles on Racial/ethnic segregation
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Contemporary examples
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Part of a series on the
Nadir of American
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Violence in the 1906 Atlanta race riot
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In the 1857 Dred Scott case (Dred Scott v. Sandford) the U.S. Supreme
Court found that Blacks were not and never could be U.S. citizens and that
the U.S. Constitution and civil rights were not applicable to them.
Republicans passed the Civil Rights Act of 1875, but it was overturned by
the U.S. Supreme Court in 1883 in the Civil Rights Cases. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of segregation in Plessy v. Ferguson
(1896), so long as "separate but equal" facilities were provided, a
requirement that was rarely met.[4] The doctrine's applicability to public schools was unanimously overturned in Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
by the Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren. In the following
years the Warren Court further ruled against racial segregation in several landmark cases including Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States
(1964), which helped bring an end to the Jim Crow laws.[5][6][7][8]

Segregation was enforced across the U.S. for much of its history. Racial segregation follows two forms. De jure segregation mandated the separation
of races by law, and was the form imposed by slave codes before the Civil
War and by Black Codes and Jim Crow laws following the war. De jure
segregation was outlawed by the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting
Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968.[9] De facto
segregation, or segregation "in fact", is that which exists without
sanction of the law. De facto segregation continues today in areas such as residential segregation and school segregation because of both
contemporary behavior and the historical legacy of de jure
segregation.[10] Antebellum era

Schools were segregated in the U.S. and educational opportunities for
Black people were restricted. Efforts to establish schools for them were
met with violent opposition. The U.S. government established Indian
boarding school where Native Americans were sent.

African Free School was in New York City in the 18th century. Education
during the slave period in the United States was limited. Richard
Humphreys, Samuel Powers Emlen Jr, and Prudence Crandall established
schools for African Americans in the decades preceding the Civil War.

In 1832, Prudence Crandall admitted an African American girl to her
all-white Canterbury Female Boarding School in Canterbury, Connecticut, resulting in public backlash and protests. She converted the boarding
school to one for only African American girls, but Crandall was jailed for
her efforts for violating a Black Law. In 1835, an anti-abolitionist mob attacked and destroyed Noyes Academy, an integrated school in Canaan, New Hampshire founded by abolitionists in New England. In 1849, the
Massachusetts Supreme Court ruled that segregated schools were allowed
under the Constitution of Massachusetts (Roberts v. City of Boston).[11]
Emlen Institution was a boarding school for African American and Native American orphans in Ohio and then Pennsylvania.[12][13] Richard Humphreys (philanthropist) bequeathed money to establish the Institute for Colored
Youth in Philadelphia.[14] Yale Law School co-founder, judge, and mayor of
New Haven David Daggett was a leader in the fight against schools for
African Americans and helped block plans for a college for African
Americans in New Haven, Connecticut.

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